Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, ISSN 1923-2861 print, 1923-287X online, Open Access
Article copyright, the authors; Journal compilation copyright, J Endocrinol Metab and Elmer Press Inc
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Original Article

Volume 15, Number 1, March 2025, pages 15-23

Prevalence of Self-Reported Halitosis in Individuals With Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study

Figures

↓  Figure 1. Halitosis prevalence in type 1, type 2, and non-diabetic groups (group 1 = subjects with type 1 DM, group 2 = subjects with type 2 DM, group 3 = non-diabetic subjects). DM: diabetes mellitus.
Figure 1.
↓  Figure 2. Self-reported smelling ability score among the three groups (group 1 = subjects with type 1 DM, group 2 = subjects with type 2 DM, group 3 = non-diabetic subjects). *Significant difference (P < 0.001). DM: diabetes mellitus.
Figure 2.
↓  Figure 3. Mean self-reported intensity of halitosis among the three groups (group 1 = subjects with type 1 DM, group 2 = subjects with type 2 DM, group 3 = non-diabetic subjects). *Significant difference (P < 0.005). DM: diabetes mellitus.
Figure 3.

Tables

↓  Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participant
 
Group I (type 1 DM) Group II (type 2 DM) Group III (non-diabetic) Total P value
N (%) N (%) N (%) N
*Significant difference (P < 0.05). SD: standard deviation; DM: diabetes mellitus.
Gender
  Male, n (%) 61 (22.34%) 80 (29.30%) 132 (48.35%) 273 0.004*
  Female, n (%) 77 (21.45%) 64 (17.83%) 218 (60.72%) 359
Age
  Mean ± SD 36.62 ± 14.77 51.45 ± 9.7 44.2 ± 12.5 0.000*
Smoking
  Nonsmoker, n (%) 121 (22.06%) 119 (21.88%) 305 (56.07%) 544 0.003*
  Electric cigarettes, n (%) 9 (27.27%) 4 (12.12%) 20 (60.61%) 33
  Regular cigarettes, n (%) 5 (10.87%) 21 (45.65%) 20 (43.48%) 46
  Both (electric and regular cigarettes), n (%) 3 (37.50%) 0 (0.00%) 5 (62.50%) 8

 

↓  Table 2. Diet Regimen of Participants Among the Three Groups
 
Group 1 (type 1 DM) Group 2 II (type 2 DM) Group 3 (non-diabetic) Total P value
N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
*Significant difference (P < 0.05). DM: diabetes mellitus.
Low carbs, n (%) 48 (34.78%) 61 (42.36%) 73 (20.86%) 182 (28.8%)
Keto diet, n (%) 3 (2.17%) 2 (1.39%) 5 (1.43%) 10 (1.58%) 0.048*
Vegetarian, n (%) 2 (1.45%) 3 (2.08%) 5 (1.43%) 10 (1.58%)
No diet, n (%) 82 (59.42%) 75 (52.08%) 258 (73.71%) 415 (65.66%)
Multiple, n (%) 3 (2.17%) 3 (2.08%) 9 (2.57%) 15 (2.37%)
Total 138 144 350 632

 

↓  Table 3. Prevalence of Halitosis in Patients After Being Diagnosed With DM
 
Do you suffer from halitosis after being diagnosed with DM? Type 1, n (%) Type 2, n (%) Total, n (%)
DM: diabetes mellitus.
Yes 47 (49.5%) 48 (50.5%) 95 (100.0%)
No 86 (48.0%) 93 (52.0%) 179 (100.0%)

 

↓  Table 4. Correlation Between HbA1c and Halitosis Score Among Subjects With DM
 
Variable HbA1c Halitosis score
HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; DM: diabetes mellitus.
Correlation coefficient 1.00 0.027
Significance (two-tailed) - 0.654
N 281 281

 

↓  Table 5. Correlation Between the Duration of DM and Awareness of Halitosis in Group I and Group II
 
Group Pearson’s R (P value) Spearman’s correlation (P value) Valid cases, n
DM: diabetes mellitus.
Group I 0.162 (0.056) 0.097 (0.252) 140
Group II 0.245 (0.003) 0.187 (0.023) 149