J Endocrinol Metab

Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, ISSN 1923-2861 print, 1923-287X online, Open Access

Article copyright, the authors; Journal compilation copyright, J Endocrinol Metab and Elmer Press Inc

Journal website https://jem.elmerpub.com

Original Article

Volume 15, Number 1, March 2025, pages 15-23

Prevalence of Self-Reported Halitosis in Individuals With Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Cross-Sectional Study

Figure 1. Halitosis prevalence in type 1, type 2, and non-diabetic groups (group 1 = subjects with type 1 DM, group 2 = subjects with type 2 DM, group 3 = non-diabetic subjects). DM: diabetes mellitus.

Figure 2. Self-reported smelling ability score among the three groups (group 1 = subjects with type 1 DM, group 2 = subjects with type 2 DM, group 3 = non-diabetic subjects). *Significant difference (P < 0.001). DM: diabetes mellitus.

Figure 3. Mean self-reported intensity of halitosis among the three groups (group 1 = subjects with type 1 DM, group 2 = subjects with type 2 DM, group 3 = non-diabetic subjects). *Significant difference (P < 0.005). DM: diabetes mellitus.

**Table 1.** Demographic Characteristics of Participant
	Group I (type 1 DM)	Group II (type 2 DM)	Group III (non-diabetic)	Total	P value
*Significant difference (P < 0.05). SD: standard deviation; DM: diabetes mellitus.
Gender
Male, n (%)	61 (22.34%)	80 (29.30%)	132 (48.35%)	273	0.004*
Female, n (%)	77 (21.45%)	64 (17.83%)	218 (60.72%)	359
Age
Mean ± SD	36.62 ± 14.77	51.45 ± 9.7	44.2 ± 12.5		0.000*
Smoking
Nonsmoker, n (%)	121 (22.06%)	119 (21.88%)	305 (56.07%)	544	0.003*
Electric cigarettes, n (%)	9 (27.27%)	4 (12.12%)	20 (60.61%)	33
Regular cigarettes, n (%)	5 (10.87%)	21 (45.65%)	20 (43.48%)	46
Both (electric and regular cigarettes), n (%)	3 (37.50%)	0 (0.00%)	5 (62.50%)	8

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participant

Group I (type 1 DM)

Group II (type 2 DM)

Group III (non-diabetic)

Total

P value

N (%)

*Significant difference (P < 0.05). SD: standard deviation; DM: diabetes mellitus.

Gender

Male, n (%)

61 (22.34%)

80 (29.30%)

132 (48.35%)

273

0.004*

Female, n (%)

77 (21.45%)

64 (17.83%)

218 (60.72%)

359

Age

Mean ± SD

36.62 ± 14.77

51.45 ± 9.7

44.2 ± 12.5

0.000*

Smoking

Nonsmoker, n (%)

121 (22.06%)

119 (21.88%)

305 (56.07%)

544

0.003*

Electric cigarettes, n (%)

9 (27.27%)

4 (12.12%)

20 (60.61%)

Regular cigarettes, n (%)

5 (10.87%)

21 (45.65%)

20 (43.48%)

Both (electric and regular cigarettes), n (%)

3 (37.50%)

0 (0.00%)

5 (62.50%)

**Table 2.** Diet Regimen of Participants Among the Three Groups
	Group 1 (type 1 DM)	Group 2 II (type 2 DM)	Group 3 (non-diabetic)	Total	P value
*Significant difference (P < 0.05). DM: diabetes mellitus.
Low carbs, n (%)	48 (34.78%)	61 (42.36%)	73 (20.86%)	182 (28.8%)
Keto diet, n (%)	3 (2.17%)	2 (1.39%)	5 (1.43%)	10 (1.58%)	0.048*
Vegetarian, n (%)	2 (1.45%)	3 (2.08%)	5 (1.43%)	10 (1.58%)
No diet, n (%)	82 (59.42%)	75 (52.08%)	258 (73.71%)	415 (65.66%)
Multiple, n (%)	3 (2.17%)	3 (2.08%)	9 (2.57%)	15 (2.37%)
Total	138	144	350	632

Table 2. Diet Regimen of Participants Among the Three Groups

Group 1 (type 1 DM)

Group 2 II (type 2 DM)

Group 3 (non-diabetic)

Total

P value

N (%)

*Significant difference (P < 0.05). DM: diabetes mellitus.

Low carbs, n (%)

48 (34.78%)

61 (42.36%)

73 (20.86%)

182 (28.8%)

Keto diet, n (%)

3 (2.17%)

2 (1.39%)

5 (1.43%)

10 (1.58%)

0.048*

Vegetarian, n (%)

2 (1.45%)

3 (2.08%)

5 (1.43%)

10 (1.58%)

No diet, n (%)

82 (59.42%)

75 (52.08%)

258 (73.71%)

415 (65.66%)

Multiple, n (%)

3 (2.17%)

3 (2.08%)

9 (2.57%)

15 (2.37%)

Total

138

144

350

632

**Table 3.** Prevalence of Halitosis in Patients After Being Diagnosed With DM
Do you suffer from halitosis after being diagnosed with DM?	Type 1, n (%)	Type 2, n (%)	Total, n (%)
DM: diabetes mellitus.
Yes	47 (49.5%)	48 (50.5%)	95 (100.0%)
No	86 (48.0%)	93 (52.0%)	179 (100.0%)

Table 3. Prevalence of Halitosis in Patients After Being Diagnosed With DM

Do you suffer from halitosis after being diagnosed with DM?

Type 1, n (%)

Type 2, n (%)

Total, n (%)

DM: diabetes mellitus.

Yes

47 (49.5%)

48 (50.5%)

95 (100.0%)

86 (48.0%)

93 (52.0%)

179 (100.0%)

**Table 4.** Correlation Between HbA1c and Halitosis Score Among Subjects With DM
Variable	HbA1c	Halitosis score
HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; DM: diabetes mellitus.
Correlation coefficient	1.00	0.027
Significance (two-tailed)	-	0.654
N	281	281

Table 4. Correlation Between HbA1c and Halitosis Score Among Subjects With DM

Variable

HbA1c

Halitosis score

HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; DM: diabetes mellitus.

Correlation coefficient

1.00

0.027

Significance (two-tailed)

0.654

281

**Table 5.** Correlation Between the Duration of DM and Awareness of Halitosis in Group I and Group II
Group	Pearson’s R (P value)	Spearman’s correlation (P value)	Valid cases, n
DM: diabetes mellitus.
Group I	0.162 (0.056)	0.097 (0.252)	140
Group II	0.245 (0.003)	0.187 (0.023)	149

Table 5. Correlation Between the Duration of DM and Awareness of Halitosis in Group I and Group II

Group

Pearson’s R (P value)

Spearman’s correlation (P value)

Valid cases, n

DM: diabetes mellitus.

Group I

0.162 (0.056)

0.097 (0.252)

140

Group II

0.245 (0.003)

0.187 (0.023)

149